VIII. Human Learning & Memory
A. Craik & Lockhart: Levels of
Processing Theory
1.
Claim: A Deeper Level of Processing Creates A Slower Decaying
Memory
a. There Are Hundreds of Levels Ranging
From Shallow
(Perceptual) to Deep (Semantic)
b. Processing At A Level Creates A Memory That Decays At A
Specific
Rate
c. Rehearsal Doesn't Help If It Just Keeps Information Active At
The
Sound Level
2.
Characteristics Of A Levels Experiment
a. Incidental Learning (To Prevent People
From Choosing
Their Own Level)
b. Orienting Task (Instruction To Get People To Process At A
Certain
Level
c. Surprise Memory Test (To See What They Remember)
3.
Supporting Results
a. Hyde & Jenkins
b. Craik & Tulving
c. Phoneme Monitoring Task: Craik & Watkins
4.
Some Problems
a. Why The Difference Between Yes and No
Words in
Craik & Tulving?
b. Why Should Deeper Levels Cause Slower Decay?
c. Things At The Same Level Are Forgotten At Different Rates And
Not
The Same Rate (see below)
5.
Recommendation: Process To Deep (Meaningful) Levels
B.
Alternative
1: Eysenck's Distinctiveness Theory
<> 1. Claim: Deeper Levels of Processing
Create
More Distinct Memories
<>
a. Success Of Remembering Depends On
Interference,
Not Decay
b. Shallower Levels Involve Items That Are More Similar, Causing
More
Interference
c. Within A Level, More Distinct Items Should Be Remembered
Better
Than More Similar Items (See Point A.4.c above)
2.
Supporting
Results
a. McLaughlin: Changing Serial
Position Effect
b. Eysenck & Eysenck: Distinct Pronounciations
c. Hunt & Elliott: Orthographic Distinctiveness
3.
Recommendation:
Make Things Distinct! (Same Advice From Mowrer & Jones;
Lieberman;
Kamin; etc.)
C.
Alternative
2: Elaboaration Theory (Stein & Bransford; Anderson & Reder)
1.
Claim:
A Deeper Level of Processing Creates A More Elaborated Memory
<>
a. Success Of
Remembering
Depends On Number Of Retrieval Cues And Paths, Not Decay
b. Shallower Levels Have Less Elaboration, So Fewer Retrieval
Cues/Paths
c. Within A Level, More Elaborated Items Should Be Remembered
Better
Than Less Elaborated Items (See Point A.4.c above)
2.
Supporting
Results
a. Craik & Tulving: Complex and
Simple Sentence
Frames
b. Stein & Bransford: Precise versus Imprecise
Elaborations
c. Maintenance versus Elaborative Rehearsals
3.
Recommendation:
Make Things More Precisely Elaborate!
C.
Alternative
3: Tulving's Principle of Encoding Specificity
1.
Claim:
Memory Tests Contain Retrieval Cues That Are More Likely To Match
Deeper
Level Stuff
a. Memories
Formed
in the Context of Encoding Include Event and Context Information
b. When Context of Encoding and Context of Retrieval Are Similar,
Context
Cues Help Activate The Original Memory
c. Memory Tests Usually Include Semantic (Deep) Cues So They Do A
Better
Job Of Activating Deep Level Memories
d. If Our Memory Test Contains Shallow-Level Cues, Then We Ought
To
Be Able To Reverse The Levels Effect
2.
Supporting
Results
a. Morris, Bransford, & Franks
b. Godden & Baddeley's Diver Experiment
c. Smith's Contextual Reinstatement
3.
Recommendation:
Use Retrieval Cues Relevant To Encoding; Reinstate Context!